The English Reformation Essay -- Literary Analysis, Dickens

The book I chose to review for this assignment is entitled The English Reformation by author A. G. Dickens. The book describes the processes that led to religious transformations and provides an excellent overview on the Reformation in England. The work thoroughly analyzes the political, economical and social aspects of the Reformation in the sixteenth century. The English Reformation, first published in 1964 is a great source of information for anyone who is interested in the history of the religious transition and change. The author of The English Reformation aims to analyze and explain the complex processes that have taken place during the reign of Henry VIII and his successors. He investigates the background and defines conditions for the religious transformation. A. G. Dickens set out to carefully examine the complex processes of the English Reformation by describing the state of the religious affairs in the late medieval England. He believes that traditional catholic religion was to some extent based on superstitious beliefs and folk‘s legends. He begins his book by telling a story of a knight who robs passing travelers but maintains a pious vigil to Virgin Mary. His devotion to Holy Mother professed by his daily prayers saves him physically and spiritually. The knight is warned of the mortal danger and allowed to change his conducts. It seems that these kinds of legends mixed with Christian sentiments were commonly absorbed by people. A. G. Dickens writes: â€Å"†¦its e ffort to attain salvation through devout observance, its fantastic emphasis on saints, relics and pilgrimages...† (4). These views were contrasted with the ideas of Lollards and the teachings of John Wycliffe. Their emphasis on sole aut... ...n that Lollardy consists mainly of artisans and tradesmen. It seems that the rebellious ideas might have originated with educated individuals but were propagated by commoners. A. G. Dickens proves that social and economic prominence was significant in spreading the protestant ideas. He writes: â€Å"Tudor provincial society contained large mobile elements and the part played by wandering cloth-workers in the dissemination of heresy has already been observed.†(33). The English Reformation by A. G. Dickens is an extensive and thorough account of the political and religious reality of sixteenth century England. The work examines and describes all processes that led to the religious transformation. The great events of the Henry’s reign are explained carefully, comprehensively and clearly, making the work highly regarded analysis of the English Reformation.

The Importance Of Biodiversity And Conservation Environmental Sciences Essay

Environmental issues such as dirt debasement, worsening biodiversity, solid waste jobs, chemical pollution, planetary clime alteration and usage of fossil fuels have become jobs of non merely a individual state but of full humanity. Issues of environment are recognized globally because of the trans-boundary nature of jobs that emanates from environmental debasement. The impact of environmental debasement does non halt at one state provinces ‘ boundary line, but have a far reaching impact at another topographic point. Environmental debasement has long been attributed to human activities since the beginning of industrial revolution. An recognition to the trans-boundary impact of such activities on the environment was foremost witnessed in the 1970 by the sensing of the depletion of ozone bed above the Earth ‘s ambiance. Subsequently, other environmental issues such as the dangers of risky waste, clime alteration, and loss of bio diverseness were taken up at the planetary degree. Taking biodiversity as one such issue, this thesis will turn to this issue in the context of trans-boundary preservation attempt. Here the function of scientific community, local based cognition and national authorities ( s ) attempt at preservation will be examined. To this, an epistemological attack of government theory will be employed to understand the nature of preservation in the Singalila Range which lies between India ‘s Darjeeling territory and Nepal ‘s Ilam ‘s territory. Biodiversity is the diverseness of works and carnal species in an environment. The more diverse a home ground, the better opportunity it has of lasting a alteration or menace to it, because it is more likely to be able to do a reconciliation accommodation. Habitats with small biodiversity ( e.g. , Arctic tundra ) are more vulnerable to alter. Harmonizing to the Britannica concise encyclopaedia, biodiversity is defined as â€Å" Diversity of works and carnal species in an environment † The Convention of Biodiversity 1992, defined it as â€Å" the variableness among populating beings from all beginnings including, inter alia, tellurian, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological composites of which they are portion ; this includes diverseness within species, between species and of ecosystems † ( Convention On Biological Diversity 1992: Article 2 ) . In the â€Å" Global Biodiversity Strategy † of 1992 formulated by the World Resources Institute, World Conservation Union, and United Nations Environment Programme, biodiversity is defined as â€Å" the entirety of cistrons, species, and ecosystems in a part † ( p3 ) Closely linked to the thought of biodiversity is the construct of preservation. Conservation of biodiversity agencies planned direction of a natural resource or of a peculiar ecosystem to forestall development, pollution, devastation, or disregard and to guarantee the future serviceability of the resource. In the West, preservation attempts day of the month back to 17th-century European woods when increasing demands for fuel and edifice stuffs was deemed unsafe to forest resources. National Parkss, foremost established in the nineteenth century, were dedicated to the saving of uncultivated land non merely to supply a safe oasis to wildlife but besides to protect watershed countries and assist guarantee a clean H2O supply. Thus, national statute law and international pacts and ordinances aim to strike a balance between the demand for development and the demand to conserve the environment for the hereafter. Wild life preservation is the ordinance of wild animate beings and workss in such a manner as to supply for their continuation. Attempts are aimed at forestalling the decrease of present populations and guaranting the continued being of home grounds. To accomplish this, techniques involve constitution of sanctuaries and controls on hunting, usage of land, importing of foreign species, pollution, and usage of pesticides was adopted. In the context of preservation, it is of import to observe that life scientist demands to understand that civilization forms an of import feature in preservation, particularly in countries, where bulk of the dwellers are autochthonal community who for centuries adapted to the eco-system of that part, every bit good as practiced age old traditional methods of preservation. Globally, there have been many instances where local communities forms an of import portion of preservation attempt. In others, biodiversity preservation among the communities was facilitated by the scientific community. In the Himalayas, the function of scientific discipline can non be ignored particularly when taking into history of job of clime alteration, increasing urbanisation, and loss of biodiversity. However, at the same clip, this part imbibed the function of traditional cognition in protection of bi-diversity. The present of sacred grove and animistic believe testify to 1s such man-nature relationship. Therefore, it is the purpose of this thesis to analyze the interface of between the scientific discipline and tradition in preservation patterns in the Singalila scope of the eastern Himalayas ; the part surrounding India ‘s Darjeeling territory and Nepal ‘s Illam territory. RATIONALE OF THE STUDY Singalila Ridge is a North-South running mountain ridge between Darjeeling territory of West Bengal, India and Illam District of Nepal. This scope extends up to North Sikkim District in Sikkim. The country of survey will concentrate on the Maneybhanjyang-Phalut stretch which is portion of India ‘s Singalila scope. The survey will besides include the immediate small towns of Illam territory which autumn under Nepalese ‘s Singalila scope ( see Map, fig 1 ) . This scope is celebrated for its trekking paths and peculiarly the Maneybhanjyang- Phalut trek path which offers brilliant position of Mt. Kanchenjunga and pristine landscapes. Thick bamboo, oak, magnolia and rhododendron wood between 2000 and 3600 metre cover the Singalila Ridge. There are two seasons of wildflower bloom-one in spring ( March-April ) when the Rhododendrons bloom, and another in the post-monsoon season ( around October ) , when the lower woods bloom ( Primula, Geranium, Saxifraga, Bistort, Senecio, Cotoneaster and legion orchids ) . Sandakphu is known as the â€Å" mountain of toxicant workss † due to the big concentration of Himalayan Cobra Lilies ( Arisaema ) which grow there ( Department of Forest, West Bengal ) . There are many preservation attempts traveling on around this part. On the Indian side of the scope and within the district of West Bengal lies the Singalila National Park. This country was declared a national park in the twelvemonth 1992. This park is celebrated for the assortment of rhododendrons and other bio species. The park has a figure of little mammals including the Red Panda, Leopard Cat, Barking Deer, Yellow-throated Marten, Wild Boar, Pangolin and the Pika. Larger mammals include the Himalayan Black Bear, Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Serow and Takin. Bird species like the Scarlet Minivet, Kalij Pheasant, Blood Pheasant, Satyr Tragopan, Brown and Fulvous Parrotbills and Rufous-vented Tit etc are besides found in this part. ( Department of Forest, West Bengal ) Towards the North of this park, lies the Varsey Rhododendron Sanctuary which falls under Sikkim, a provincial province of the Indian brotherhood. The average one-year temperature in this part varies from 7degree Celsius to 17 grade Celsius in summer and in winter it varies from 1 degree Celsius to 10 grade Celsius. Mean one-year rainfall in this part is about 350 centimeter. and moderate storms accompanied by hailstones are common in this country during March- April. This country besides receives snowfall which can get down anytime between the terminal of November to January/ February and sometimes even continues up to late April. Within the Singalila scope there are many small towns which exist outside the national park country and most of these small towns are located in the Nepali district. However two small towns viz. Foktey and Gorkhey are still bing within the national park. The traditional beginning of income for these small towns is subsistence agribusiness and farm animal raising. However, in recent old ages touristry has replaced these traditional beginnings as the chief beginning of income for support. Agricultural merchandise includes corn, veggies like murphies, radish, cabbages etc. and farm animal includes sheep, caprine animals and yacks. Few yak Herders can be seen around Sabarkum and Phalut ( 3600m ) . Adventure tourism-has flourished in this country and the month of March- April and October-November is the best season to see. Between the months of June to September the forest sections in the Indian side do non let any tourer to see this part as this is the engendering season of wild life. Movement of tourer is restricted as non to upset the animate being ‘s genteelness. Furthermore, trekking during the monsoon season is the non feasible as the trail becomes really unsmooth and difficult to undertake because of heavy rainfall. While the Indian side of the Singalila scope there is a national park with no human habitation allowed inside the park, in Nepal ‘s district there is no national park antonym, but preservation in the district is based on communitarian pattern of preservation. In the Indian side of the scope, the lands which falls outside the legal power of the national park was declared as the territorial wood from where colonies were non removed but within these districts excessively no new colonies are allowed. Previously colonies which came under the district of the national park was removed, nevertheless, there is a little small town located in the vale of Gorkhey were little Numberss of population are non removed. But at the same clip, no new building of houses is allowed in this small town. Eco development Community and Forest Protection Committeehas been instrumental in supplying public assistance to the people in forest small towns and has besides been instrumental in conveying preservation consciousness among the local population. Along the Nepali district, community forestry is taking stairss for preservation. Many small towns[ 1 ]are located in this belt hence ; the forest section in Nepal has to take attention of non merely the preservation issues but besides has to negociate the quandary of community development and biodiversity preservation. The community forestry plan in Nepal emerged in 1978 to forestall deforestation and forest debasement. This attempt bit by bit developed into a participatory forestry plan which was now based on institutional development ( Kanel et.al 2005: 80 ) . The Community Forest Division ( CFD ) comes under the Department of Forests of Nepal and is responsible for steering policies, back uping the executing of these policies, and besides oversing the community forest plan and undertakings in Nepal. This undertaking is headed by the Joint Secretary degree division who supervises the CFD ( Kanel et.al. 2005: 75 ) . Despite the presence of conservatory attempt, the Singalila scope which encompasses two national boundaries faces figure of menaces to its biodiversity. There has been habitat debasement in this part. The biodiversity debasement in this part can be attributed to unsustainable extraction and usage of natural resources, impacts from unregulated touristry, and presence of para-military cantonments within the forest scopes of India. Some 65 works, 19 mammal, and 11 bird species are already threatened in this part ( Chettri 2000 ) . Furthermore, the difference in political and administrative scenes in Nepal and India to a big extent jeopardizes preservation issues and precedences. The hit-or-miss land-use patterns outside the protected country of the National park have resulted into the insufficiency of preservation policies. Most of the environmental degrading activities happen on the peripheries of the National park. Such debasement on the peripheries of the national park occurs because of the absence of a buffer zone between the national park and human home ground. Before 1992, unregulated boundary line graze inside the park was common. However, with the constitution of the National Park, croping inside the park country was prohibited and many cowss Stationss were removed from the park country. Therefore, it can be seen that the constitution of a buffer zone is hard if non impossible because the construct of preservation in this country itself is new, and neither was there any natural barrier ( example-river ) to move as a buffer zone. In the last few old ages at that place has been attempt to beef up this preservation attempt non merely within the country of the national park of single states but besides beyond it. This new attempt is trans-boundary in its attack which includes the function of Non-Governmental Organisations ( NGOs ) , International Non Governmental Organisations ( INGOs ) , academics establishments, and most significantly, the local communities of the part both in India and Nepal. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze this transboundary preservation attack by concentrating on the function of the epistemological communities.[ 2 ]Harmonizing to Peter Haas, an epistemological community is a â€Å" web of professionals with recognized expertness and competency in a peculiar sphere and an important claim to policy-relevant cognition within that sphere or issue-area † ( Haas 1992: 27 ) . Hass besides defines epistemological communities as â€Å" channels through which new thoughts circulate from societies to authoritiess every bit good as from state to state † ( Haas 1992: 27 ) . This survey will nevertheless non curtail the definition of Peter Hass ‘ ‘epistemic community ‘ merely to the scientific community and expert based cognition but will besides see traditional cognition of the autochthonal communities of preservation as another signifier of a knowledge-based society. In the Himalayan parts, traditional cognition of biodiversity preservation has been existed for 100s of old ages where the community ‘s life is closely dependent on nature. This symbiotic relation between the community and nature is manifested through the assorted signifiers of community life. Environmental protection is by and large manifested through the community ‘s faith and folklore where preservation is practised through constitution of sacred Grovess, worship of mountain divinities, pattern of traditional healing system, and community usage of resources. It is in the importance of such symbiotic dealingss that any perturbation to the physical environment is deemed damaging to the life of the community. And many a times, any effort to make so is duly resisted ; the instance of Chipko motion in Uttranchal and the Lepcha ‘s opposition to the building of Teesta Dam in the Dzongu country of Sikkim is a instance in the point. Therefore for the intent of this survey, epistemological communities will include both the western and traditional construct of knowledge-based society ; both holding the expertness in the given issue countries of biodiversity preservation. The principle of following such attack is to non merely to recognize traditional cognition base but besides to speculate the hazards of exclusion of these traditional communities from bio diverseness preservation. In most instances, failure in preservation attempt or struggle over preservation attempt is chiefly because of the exclusion of local community ‘s cognition towards preservation instead than their rights to the usage of resources within the countries of preservation. Using this attack, the principle of this survey is to research the function played by the ‘epistemic community ‘[ 3 ]in biodiversity preservation in the Singalila scope. Such apprehension will enable us to place the broader jobs faced by India and Nepal in transboundary preservation attempt in this part.Methodological APPROACHES RE-CONSIDEREDEpistemic COMMUNITIES: Methodological APPROACHES RE-CONSIDEREDBiodiversity Conservation and Epistemic CommunitiesIncreasing globalisation has brought mutuality between provinces. This has brought internationalisation of a given topic. This besides leads into issue-interlinking which in peculiar makes it harder for provinces to take a policy-decision on some given issues. Domestic issue-areas may hold an impact on a broad aggregation of other issue-area – domestically every bit good as internationally oriented 1s. This in bend agencies that most traditional issue-areas may be included in the epistemological community attack, for in our instance we have included the issue of preservation which traditionally has been a portion of domestic issue country. ( Sundstrom, 2000 ) The epistemological community is a beginning for cognition in a given issue-area, from where the policy-shapers can pull. The grade to which policy-shapers demand advice depends on the degree of information-complexity, which once more depends on the sum of information and the sum of ( perceived ) information interconnectedness ( Sundstrom, 2000 ) . The degree and grade of information is huge every bit good as complex which requires policy shapers to organize and understand the function of the scientific community and traditional cognition based communities. Recognition of the presence of these communities in understanding preservation is spread outing quickly as portion of sustainable development attack. Functions are besides being supplemented by the function of the administrative officials whose policy-based cognition is necessary for implementing preservation policy. Haas gives the illustration of the turning proficient nature of jobs and the turning figure of administrative offic ials functioning in authorities sections in determining policy on a issues countries â€Å" have fostered an addition in the respect paid to proficient expertness, and in peculiar, to that of scientists † ( Haas 1992: 9- 11, ) The cardinal belief of the epistemological community attack is, to some grade, the community positions comes before the positions of single members, therefore connoting that the single members will probably to be faithful to the community. Such belief derives from the simple hypothesis that the community and the single portion basic community-norms. At any given point, if difference between the community members, it can â€Å" either be dismissed as extraordinary, and statistically unimportant, single exercisings, or as wholly ‘extra communal ‘ activities. † ( Sundstrom, 2000 ) Harmonizing to Peter Hass, members of the epistemological community may be from a assortment of subjects and backgrounds but must hold: 1 ) A shared set of normative and principled beliefs, which provide a value-based principle for the societal action of community members. 2 ) Shared causal beliefs, which are derived from their analysis of patterns taking or lending to a cardinal set of jobs in their sphere and which so serve as the footing for clarifying the multiple linkages between possible policy action and desired results 3 ) Shared impressions of validity-that is, intersubjective, internally defined standards for weighing and formalizing cognition in the sphere of their expertness 4 ) A common policy enterprise- that is, a set of common patterns associated with a set of jobs to which their professional competency is directed, presumptively out of the strong belief that human public assistance will be enhanced as a effect. ( International Organization, Vol 46, p.3. ) As discussed earlier, epistemological communities is a knowledge-expert based community which focuses on a peculiar issue country which is dependent on four variables of â€Å" type of issue-area, issue-relevant information complexness, community coherence, and links to policy-shapers † ( Sundstrom, 2000 ) . In the country of environmental protection, Peter Hass has highlighted the Mediterranean part as a perfect illustration where a function of epistemological communities was efficaciously implemented in commanding transboundary Marine pollution in the Mediterranean Sea. The widespread pollution of the Mediterranean is the effect of high coastal population emphasis, unregulated industrial, municipal, and agricultural emanation patterns. To control this job, a co-ordinated attempt of all the coastal provinces was needed for a common pollution criterion for pollutants from oilers, offshore dumping, and a assortment of land based beginnings ( Hass 1989: 377- 403 ) . Pollution of Mediterranean Sea was widely regarded as a corporate job, since pollutants of both developed and developing states in the Mediterranean country could disperse up on its neighbour ‘s beaches. Pollution was recognized by all provinces in the part but no such action or was taken or agreed upon because of conflicting involvement and deficiency of scientific informations on the nature of the job and its solution. However, it was merely when the scientific community of ecologist and expert came in that the Mediterranean Plan was successfully negotiated. ( Hass 1989: 377-403 ) . These experts who served in UNEP ‘s secretariat had limited control in the determination devising of their several states and were given duty for implementing and administrating pollution control measures. These experts became supporter for following the government following with it, and beef uping it to cover with more pollutants from the beginnings. With the engagement of these new histrio ns, province involvements reflected their environmental position, and province behaviour came to reflect their involvement as good, as was obvious from province investing forms and diplomatic actions ( Hass 1989: 377- 403 ) . The instance of Mediterranean Plan shows that if a group with a common point of view is able to acquire clasp of and keep control over determination devising, the associated government will go stronger and provinces will move in conformity with it. Such groups will besides be consulted during crisis, particularly when the policy shapers are incognizant about the proficient dimensions of the job at manus or are unsure about the cost and benefits of international cooperation ( Hass 1989: 377- 403 ) . Added to this, the flow of information is undeniably a critical portion of the epistemological communities. The hunt for information is the chief stimulation for steadily turning epistemological co-operation every bit good as connexion to the decision-making construction ( Sundstrom 2000 ) . Epistemic communities besides play a critical function in regime formation. Epistemic communities are important â€Å" channels through which new thoughts circulate from societies to authoritiess every bit good as from state to state † ( P. Haas 1992:27 ) . They are non merely aimed at supplying information to the determination shapers but besides seeking to convey about â€Å" better policy † by looking for entree to regulating constitution ( Hasenclever Andreas et Al. 1996, 177-228 ) . Because of revolution in transit and communicating in a globalized epoch, there is a free flow of information internationally ; resultantly these webs of experts maps transnationally. New findings are shared and discussed across national boundary lines. When members of an epistemological community reach understanding on an issue in their field of survey, they become a comparatively independent beginning of scientific grounds and authorization ( Hasenclever Andreas et Al. 1996: 209 ) . A transnationally interacting epistemological community therefore becomes a Centre for international acquisition ( Hasenclever Andreas et Al. 1996: 209 ) . Harmonizing to Peter Haas ( 1992 ) , there are three conditions that determine whether the epistemic community will hold an impact on international government. First, there must be a high grade of uncertainness among policymakers. Most of the clip determination shapers do non recognize that they have an deficient cognition of complex issues. It is merely during the clip of a crisis they realizes their failing and seeks aid from an epistemological community ( P. Haas 1992:14 ) . Second, no sound policy advice can be given unless a high grade of consensual cognition exists among the members of the epistemological community ( P. Haas 1992: .23 ) .When â€Å" scientific grounds is equivocal and the experts themselves are split into postulating cabals, issues have tended to be resolved less on their proficient virtues than on their political 1s † ( P. Haas 1992: 11 ) . Third, members of the epistemological community must hold adequate entree and control in the determination devising in order to act upon regime formation and execution ( P. Haas 1992: 27 ) . An epistemological community must go portion of the determination devising ( Hasenclever Andreas et Al. 1996: 209 ) . An effort at understanding biodiversity preservation in the Himalayas and function played by different histrions in germinating an epistemological community will be of import in easing regime formation. The importance of this country stretches beyond India and Nepal, it involves other states like Bhutan and China excessively. Beyond the Singalia scope lies the Kanchendonza eco-system that cut across these states. Therefore better apprehension of the cognition of this country will affect conceptional procedures in the creative activity and consolidation of epistemological communities ( Bloodworth 2008 ) . It is merely through the apprehension of this conceptional procedure that thoughts and norms in international dealingss emerges, and most significantly in their effects on policies of trans-boundary jobs ( Bloodgood, 2008 ) . In simple words, this conceptional procedure based on epistemic apprehension of the jobs by histrions can ease the formation of transboundary biodiversity prese rvation government in the eastern Himalayas.Traditional Knowledge BasedKnowledge of preservation and biodiversity can be understood merely when civilization is taking into history. Sharing of cultural cognition on preservation would take to beef uping of the already acquired scientific discipline based cognition. Knowledge depends on the epistemic places and methodological attacks which we hold and both of these depend on our already acquired values ( Bloodgood 2008: 3 ) . Autochthonal traditional cognition becomes an acquired value through the continuity of cultural pattern over clip and infinite. In recent old ages, certification of the traditional ecological cognition has become of import for modern applied research non merely to continue traditional cognition but besides to profit from these aged old traditional patterns to germinate new thoughts and theoretical accounts for an ecologically sound usage of the natural environment. Conservation attempts in the Singalila scope have been initiated with the duty shared by governmental establishments, NGOs, INGOs and local communities. In the Indian side of the boundary line, the authorities of India has been instrumental in bordering constabularies for preservation following the protected wood scheme in conserving the biodiversity of the topographic point. By declaring the part as a National Park in1992, the authorities of India ‘s preservation scheme is that of a protected wood scheme which mandated rigorous steps to preservation is applied. In contrast to the Indian scheme, the Nepalese ‘s scheme of preservation is community based attack which focuses on the engagement of the local community in preservation and resource use. In both states, NGOs like ATREE, DLR Prerna, FOSEP, NCDC has been executing a transboundary function, therefore they can be described as â€Å" Transboundary NGOs ( TBNGOs ) † in biodiversity preservation. The TBNGOs though registered in one state but their functions in preservation encompasses the geographical boundary of the two states. For illustration, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment ( ATREE ) is an Indian registered environmental NGO working in the country of environment direction and sustainable support. ATREE, though registered in India, its legal power does non restrict to India ‘s district merely, nevertheless, its activities has been to advance environmental direction and preservation within the Singalila scope of Nepal ‘s district every bit good. Besides the function of these TBNGOs, other INGOs like WWF and ICIMOD have been active in preservation attempts in the Singalila scope. Here the function of ICIMOD is more relevant. ICIMOD has been vocal about transforming the informal function of TBNGOs into a formal one, therefore commiting the transboundary preservation non merely between India and Nepal but the whole of the eastern Himalayas. So far ICIMOD has been playing the function of a facilitator for the development of an epistemological community by supplying expertness to the authoritiess, local communities, and NGOs on bio diverseness preservation in the Himalayas. A inquiry might originate as to why the function of epistemological community is given accent in this survey of preservation in the Singalila scope? Further inquiry on the linkages between ICIMOD ‘s scientific discipline based cognition and the local community ‘s traditional cognition may originate. The former being a scientific discipline based cognition facilitator and the subsequently as a traditional cognition facilitator. Such linkages need to be examined in order to understand the importance of traditional norms, values and civilization of traditional communities in biodiversity preservation patterns. For centuries India and Nepal have shared deep cultural and spiritual ties which can be traced back to the ancient text of Ramayana and Mahabharata. However, over the period of clip particularly from the mediaeval period onwards Nepal has maintained its independent position with small intervention from India. Despite the formation of a new Nepal land in the 18 century, cultural and spiritual was ne'er severed off. These ties continue to boom through people to people contact. Post 1947, these ties was cemented by the sign language of the Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1950. The pact provides for an unfastened boundary line between the two states, leting free and unrestricted travel of people and goods.[ Thursday ]The pact besides grants equal rights in footings of support and chance for people in both states. Despite the deep historical and economic ties between these two neighbors, there has been countries where cooperation is hard to get at. Biodiversity preservation i s one such country where cooperation between the two is missing. In the context of survey on cooperation in international dealingss, the weak coaction between India and Nepal in footings of preservation can be attributed to the complete accent of two broad thoughts, that is, neo-liberalism and neoliberal institutionalism. In both these strands of liberalism, market and formal establishments instead than civilization is given more importance to convey about cooperation ( See Keohane, R. ‘International Institutions: Two Approaches ‘ , in International Studies Quarterly 32, 1988 ) . The failure to convey about civilization is to ignore the importance of constructed cognition of the communities over their milieus. Thus the constructions of human association are determined non merely by constructions of stuff forces but chiefly by shared thoughts ( Wendt 1999: 1 ) . In the Himalayas, over the last few old ages, thoughts and involvement over preservation is shared by NGOs, TBNGOs, INGOs and national authorities holding similar individualitie s and involvement over biodiversity protection in the country. However, the attacks and methods of preservation differs which farther alienate traditional knowledge-based communities from the procedure of preservation. Therefore if â€Å" shared cognition, material resources, and patterns † are to be implemented, there is a demand for rapprochement between the function of the epistemological communities and that of traditional communities ( see Wendt 1992: 73 ) This thesis hence efforts at gestating preservation in the context of scientific cognition based community and the bing traditional cognition. It assumes that a one dimensional attack of looking at scientific cognition based community as the lone facilitator of preservation is flawed and parlous. In the history of preservation in autochthonal countries, it has been through empirical observation proved that a one dimensional attack without the support of local community has been a failure. The importance of understanding local community ‘s traditional cognition is hence imperative to preservation. Traditional system of preservation has been existed for 1000s of old ages but with of all time increasing alteration in scientific discipline and engineering, such cognition has been challenged in two foreparts ; one is the loss of this cognition and the other is version to modern cognition and engineering of preservation. It is in this scheme, gestating preservation should take into h istory of both the traditional based cognition and the scientific cognition based attack. In other words, re-thinking epistemological community-a community of autochthonal cognition and scientists-‘policy-shapers ‘ .[ 4 ] Methodology: This thesis looks at the function of epistemological communities of the part with respect to preservation issues of biodiversity of this topographic point, what have been their attempts so far? How far has they been able to act upon their several authorities? And what are the chances of incorporating traditional based cognition into the western attack of preservation hereafter? As epistemological community attack to see international cooperation bridges the rationalist and the station rationalist institutional attack so both qualitative and quantitative methods has been applied in this research. Methodology applied in this research is literature reappraisal of the bing literature on epistemological communities. Another tools used for roll uping informations was interview. So far 11 NGOs and 15 scientists are identified as the members of epistemological communities but due to clip constrain merely three NGO members and two scientists were interviewed. It was found out that they have non sat together in any conventions or meetings to discourse the issue of preservation so far and the web of epistemological community has non formed nonetheless we can state that it is the epistemological community in doing. Sing personal interview of the scientists and the members of NGOs semi structured type has been applied. The research docket, here excessively as identified by Peter M. Hass in his work â€Å" Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination † pp.34 ( 1992 ) , involves placing community rank, finding the community members ‘ principled and causal beliefs, following their activities, and showing their influence on determination shapers at assorted points in clip. Comparative surveies of organisations are necessary, where the community is present in a certain policy country and has been active and those in which it has non been active or entirely absent. Epistemic community ‘s influence can be seen through a comparative survey of provinces and organisations in which the community has been active and those in which it has non. What can be seen following is the policies and actions of the authoritiess and organisations, before and after the stages during which a community is active so as to happen out both the outgrowth and influence of the community if there had been any. ( Haas 1992: 1-35 ) Fig. 1. Map of Singalila National Park, Darjeeling Beginning: Pradhan S. , et al. , Biological Conservation 98 ( 2001 ) p 11-18

How Fidel Castro is a Revolutionary Essay

â€Å"Some men are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them†. Those were the words of William Shakespeare in â€Å"Twelfth Night†. Some men are born and die without been sung. Their impact is not felt and they die to be forgotten by men. On the other hand, some leave their prints on the sand of time, their names and memories warm in the hearts of men. Such men are rare and are called legend, their names remembered by generations to come. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz is such a man. There comes a time in any nation when history is made. When the government of any given state fails in its responsibility, then there is need for a change. At such times, the people naturally desire a change because their trust and hopes have been drained. The people clamor for a new government, a fresh vision and seek a new hope. The question that raises concern in the minds of the people of such state is who will bear the touch? Who will lead the struggle against oppression? Who is the fearless man that will fight for what he wholly believes in? In South Africa, it was Mandela, in India it was Gandhi, in America, it was Martin Luther and in Cuba it was Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz. One thing is peculiar of these people – They were all great revolutionary leaders in their countries. Who then is a revolutionary? A revolutionary is a person who promotes or actively engages in a form of revolution. Revolutionaries are often of the idea that a change is needed and that such changes might not come without forcing it out. The use of violence is acceptable once the desired result is achieved. A revolutionary believes and seeks to uphold certain ideals or ideology. If history is to be written, the archives of Cuba will not fail to recognize Fidel Castro. For one thing, he is arguably the most prolific leader that the country has produced. He is not just a leader but he was the one that spearheaded the revolution in the nation of Cuba. His impact on the nation of Cuba can not be overemphasized. Today, one can hardly talk about the nation of Cuba without mentioning the name Fidel Castro. The question is how did this man, born like you and I were, create a niche for himself. How did he become a revolutionary leader? What exploits did he perform that made his name indelible in the annals of history? Lawyer, Cuban Revolutionary, political leader, and the former President of Cuba, Fidel Castro was born on August 13, 1926 on Cuba’s North coast to Don Angel and Linda Castro. His parents were immigrants from Spain who had come to fight the United States during the Spanish- American war of 1898. He was trained under the Jesuit priests who instilled discipline, dedication and assertiveness into him. His interests were in issues that had to do with politics and government. He immersed himself in the polemical climate of Cuban politics, nationalism, anti-imperialism, and socialism. As a student of Havana University, he was elected the president of The Law Student’s Association. He had his degree in law at the University of Havana in 1950. In 1951 he became a leader in the emergent populist political movement led by the Partido del Pueblo Cubano. The group was known in Cuba as Ortodoxos, an anti-Communist nationalist group promising major social, economic and political reforms, and expecting to gain the presidency through electoral politics. He had planned to contest for a position in the congress but his plan was foiled when Fulgencio Batista usurped the constitutional government. When this happened, Castro and some of his folks who had the mind of contesting in the elections before the government was taken started planning a means of overthrowing the government. Later in 1952, Fidel Castro plotted his own quixotic revolt, this he did by leading 130 followers to attack the Moncada army barracks in Santiago on July 26, and 1953. The attack was a poorly planned fiasco in which the rebels tried to bluff their way in. They intended to overpower the 1,000-man garrison, seize some weapons, and then hand them out to crowds of supporters who never rallied to their cause. In 1955, he was granted political amnesty and he later left Cuba for Mexico where he began to train an expeditionary force. He later formed a guerilla force that aimed at a revolution that was filled with promises of land reforms, jobs and equity for all. This made the militants grow by the day. The people of Cuba began to see a new hope and a new dawn. They will give anything they can to stop the dictatorial rule of Fulgencio Batista. In 1956, Castro launched the revolution with the help of the 82 man strong guerrilla. Unfortunately, they were ambushed by the Cuban Army and were almost killed by the invasion. At the end of the day, only Castro and eleven of his men managed to escape from the hands of the Cuban Army. At this point, it was apparent that there was no man power to win this revolution. Therefore, Castro began a massive campaign where he sought to win the peasants to his side. After two years of confrontation, the revolution turned out to be a victory as he has already won most of the peasants to his side. This victory is so significant because Fidel Castro’s Guerrilla will be the first to will a military in Latin America. This proved him to be a great political strategist. On the 1st of January 1959, the Cuban revolution began with him being at the center of it. Many people joined this revolution for different reasons. It was believed that Fidel Castro will return the country to a constitutional rule, and the reaffirmation of civil and political rights. For others, who envisioned a major re-structuring of the society, the issue was social justice. These people placed their future into the arms of Fidel Castro and so it was easy for him to establish himself as the sole leader of the intended government. However, once he got to power, Castro steered his country towards communism and collective ownership of properties. He believed and practiced communism in its possible way. This made the landowners and the American nation furious. Apparently, Batista had previously developed relations with America. This came to an abrupt end at the advent of Castro’s communism. All privately owned businesses, both the ones owned by Cubans and/or the one owned by internationals were taken over by the government. Prior to this time, the America was almost in total control of the industries in Cuba. They made money from the Cubans without fuss. The standard of living of the average Cuban citizen was greatly altered. The major idea of communism is that the working class should be in charge of the government. At this point, privately owned property was regarded as illegal. Castro was of the idea that the money of the country should be distributed equally to all citizens, according to their needs. Also, the government controls the lifestyle of its citizens. Education is also an integral part of the new Cuba’s Communist government. As Castro had hoped for, these changes did have impressive short-term effects for Cuba. Serious illness and economic hardship were almost nonexistent and Cuba had the greatest number of teachers and doctors in that area of the Caribbean. It was a new dawn for Cuba as people seemed to be looking toward a better and more relying future with Castro in charge. However, these benefits did not come without a price. For instance, in order to protect the new forms of communism, Castro eliminated elections and freedom of the press, imprisoned political opponents, and made religion a thing to be ashamed of. Castro then began to act like his counterparts who were leaders of communist countries, doing things such as putting industry under government management, claiming the property of people not born in Cuba, creating communities for agriculture, and establishing laws to help laborers and peasants . Cuba’s new form of government not only affected its people, but also affected its own relationships with other governments around the world. International reactions varied from country to country about the communism in Cuba. Many of Cuba’s newly enforced laws and government created barriers with neighboring Latin American nations and in 1962 Cuba was dismissed from the Organization of American States. Because of the United States’ opposition of Communist governments, they were quickly on bad terms with Castro and Cuba. The United States government was led even further in their decision to end any relation they have with Cuba after the Cuban government seized all land owned by Americans Not all nations were in opposition to Cuba’s change of government. As a matter of fact, Cuba enjoyed a cordial relationship with The Soviet Union. The Soviet government, which was also Communist, assisted Cuba by offering financial aid, trade and the overdue payment of Cuba’s debts. Apart from these, Cuba was also accepted into the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) in an agreement signed in 1972 with the Soviet Union. Through his long rule as the Leader of Cuba, there have been several attempts made by the US to assassinate him. All these efforts have proved abortive as he has tactfully eluded them. In 1961-63 alone, the CIA recorded hundreds of violent sabotage operations, including several assassination attempts that relied on everything from exploding cigars to bacteria-infected handkerchiefs and aerosol sprays laced with LSD. According to Mr. Castro’s security services, the CIA and Cuban exiles in Miami hatched no fewer than 638 plots to kill him. All these plots have proved abortive. Fidel Castro is a legend. He has lived a life of impact and we are learning about him today. Whatever the view might be, one thing is certain; Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz is a revolutionary – one that will not be forgotten generations to come. Reference: †¢ Buckman, Robert T. World Today Series- Latin America 2000. Harpers Ferry, WV: Stryker-Post Publishers, 2000. †¢ â€Å"Fidel Castro Cuban Leader. † Newsmaker Profiles. Internet. 28 November 2000 †¢ Kolb, Richard K. â€Å"Cold War Along the cactus Curtain. † VFW Magazine Jan 1999. SIRS. 18 October 2000 †¢ â€Å"History of Cuba. † Internet. 14 November 2001 †¢ Horne, Jed. â€Å"Fidel’s Cuba: Revolution Running on Empty. † Times-Picayune Publishing Corporation 14 March 1993. SIRS Knowledge Source. 30 October 2001. †¢ Jervis, Rick. â€Å"Cuba. † Scholastic Update 23 February 1998. EBSCOHost. 14 November 2001. †¢ Fidel Castro. Anti Essays. Retrieved March 26, 2008, from the World Wide Web: http://www. antiessays. com/free-essays/699. html †¢ Fidel Castro. BigNerds. com. Retrieved March 26, 2008, from the World Wide Web: http://www. bignerds. com/show. php? eid=699 †¢ Situation and Prospects in Cuba. (1963, June 14). (Item No. CC03127). Retrieved May 8, 2002, from Digital National Security Archives database. †¢ Chapo, Richard. (2006, October 28). Ten Interesting Tidbits About Cuba. EzineArticles. Retrieved March 25, 2008, from http://ezinearticles. com/? Ten-Interesting-Tidbits-About-Cuba&id=341249 †¢ Intelligence. (2008). In Encyclop? dia Britannica. Retrieved March 25, 2008, from Encyclop? dia Britannica Online: http://www. britannica. com/eb/article-233697 †¢ Rodriguez III, Alejandro. (2008, February 19). Fidel Castro – Cuba’s Leader Steps Down Changes Nothing. EzineArticles. Retrieved March 25, 2008, from http://ezinearticles. com/? Fidel-Castro—Cubas-Leader-Steps-Down-Changes-Nothing&id=996440 †¢ Castro, Raul. (2008). In Encyclop? dia Britannica. Retrieved March 25, 2008, from Encyclop? dia Britannica Online: http://www. britannica. com/eb/article-9439238 †¢ http://www. marxists. org/history/cuba/archive/castro/ †¢ http://www. heritage. org/Research/LatinAmerica/wm1188. cfm †¢ http://www. cnn. com/2008/WORLD/americas/02/24/cuba. nextpresident/

How Significant was the Vietnam War in Stimulating the Protest Culture of the 1960’s?

The popular protest culture that formed within the 1960's, that rebelled against the American traditional system arguably occurred because of the involvement in the Vietnam war from the federal government. Many young student and black Americans specifically, were highly against American intervention, prompting the protest culture.However, other reasons could have prompted this too, like the assassination of Kennedy, more political interest and involvement from young radicals now favouring communist and socialist ideas, and also, arguably the increase in education meaning young adults now didn't have to earn their livings as early on in their lives. Firstly, the Vietnam war was undoubtedly a very significant factor in the increased protests during the 60's.For example, the excessive bombing of North Vietnam lead in 1965 lead to many student protests, as so many civilians including women and children were being purposefully killed in order to ultimately, win the was by flattening Vietn am. This caused outrage amongst the student rebels. In particular, the student rebel group called Students for Democratic Society (SDS) used the Vietnam war to suggest that the US government was corrupt. The cause struck a chord with those at university more so than other groups of people due to the immense number of students that were made to go and fight.The average age of soldiers fighting the Vietnam war for America was 19, meaning almost every student knew someone that had been killed or injured due to the combat they were being forced to take part in. This lead to not only resentment for the war, but also fear that they would be called up to fight, and therefore even more resistance and protesting towards continuing the fight. The war faced huge resistance, and in a way gave the rebels a force and action to fight against. This could be argued as the stimulant for the protests, as they could now use the ideas of the racist, corrupt government with evidence.Many said the Vietnam war was a racist war, and that white America wanted to conquer Asia, as well as attack the gaining black equality within America. This was because in order to avoid ‘the draft' (being called up to fight once a month), many wealthy white Americans would enrol in universities or colleges. This would excuse them from having to fight, unlike other working classes and black Americans, who could simply not afford this escape route as they could not manipulate the system as easily, leading to a hugely disproportionate number fighting being black or working class.This figure was around 80%, increasing the ominous fear in students as the news of the deaths returned. Over 11000 were killed in 67, increasing to 16500 in 68. The many reasons for why the Vietnam war was so hated by many of the protests suggests its significance and its undoubtable impact on the Student Rebels. Although many argue the Vietnam war was the reason for the protests, it could be said that the protest culture wo uld not have happened without a big spark effecting the nation. This was the assassination of president J F Kennedy, who was shot in November 1963 causing deep sadness in much of the population.There were many theories concerning his death that spread around the youths of America, leading to further diminished trust amongst young people. Before the assassination, America was a different place; despite the Vietnam war, many said there was hope in this period, but the hope shattered when he was killed. Questions were raised about US society, as the civil rights movement took over encouraging civil disobedience as they said Kennedy would have wanted this because of his backing of the Freedom Rides.The shock of his death was overwhelming and arguably this caused the most fuel for the counter culture emerging than anything else. Along with the assassination of Martin Luther King and Kennedy, followed by the involvement in the Vietnam war, the impact upon the public was huge, and arguably , it was those drug crazed, protest evolved and in some cases, politically aware teenagers that came from this. However, this is not the only reason for the now more rebellious teenagers of America.As education became increased within a pupils lifetime and schooling lasting longer, many students were turning towards the SDS, who particularly focused on political issues and and came up with ideas for change within America. Many were becoming fed up with the untrustworthy American Federal government,and as this view became wider spread and more popular within the youth culture, many began favouring the idea of communism or a socialist movement. This new left group were key in organising protests and became more and more influential as numbers increased.In October 1963, their total membership was 610, however, after protests of Vietnam they became even more influential and an even more recognisable and known group. Those involved were still in education at various Universities and coll eges, meaning this age when previously they would have to go our and find a job and work to make a living was gone, and instead they could still afford to live off parents money. This split teenagers, some taking a political route, while others became more interested in ‘finding themselves' within the flower power movement.The opportunities for young people opened up within the 60s,and they were no longer held to finding a job and starting the typical American family lifestyle. They now had a time in their life that they could experiment with – possibly with various drugs – and this new sense of freedom and flexibility allowed more time for those wanting to reject the ‘too good' American society have the opportunity to protest. In conclusion, I think the main reason for the sudden development of the protest culture was the Vietnam war, as it gave students a cause to fight because of genuine opposition as well as the opportunity.It was incredibly significant in stimulating the protest culture as they faced the fear of being called up to fight themselves, causing incredible resentment of the war, as well as the arguments the students proposed that the war was indeed racist and the government corrupt. This alone was undoubtedly the most significant factor, although without events like the assassination of JF Kennedy, I do not think the movement would have been so big and influential, as there would have been less people backing the cause.

Criminal Law and Common Law defenses Research Paper

Criminal Law and Common Law defenses - Research Paper Example For example a person who is legally injured can apply tort law to recover damages from the concerned person (the one who is ‘liable’ for the damages) (White, 2003). Tort law defines the legal injury and the conditions under which the doer (of the mistake) is held responsible for the injury caused (White, 2003). Tort laws are different from other laws. A tort is the violation of private rights, for example the rights to be safe and harmless from the actions of others. Anybody who is able to distinguish right and wrong can be charged for committing a crime. In the matter of torts anybody under any age can be held liable for torts. Torts are intentional as well as unintentional. Normal crimes are punishable by the state. Torts however involve individual consequences; the injured person has got every right to act. Tort law is different from other laws; other laws are classified pursuant to their seriousness (White, 2003). Criminal justice system enforces criminal laws. Criminal justice system is nothing but a compilation of legal and social institutions that administer criminal law with respect to a set of already defined laws and regulations. Criminal justice system upholds social control, maintains justice and enforces laws. The Criminal Justice System of all nations includes three components: law enforcement, courts and finally corrections. Criminal justice systems include several major subsystems, composed of one or more public institutions and their staffs: police and other law enforcement agencies; trial and appellate courts; prosecution and public defender offices; probation and parole agencies; custodial institutions ( jails, prisons, reformatories, halfway houses, etc.); and departments of corrections (responsible for some or all probation, parole, and custodial functions) (Cole and Smith, 2003). All the three major components of the criminal justice system should

No Child Left Behind Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

No Child Left Behind Act - Essay Example The strong and weak points of the law will be discussed in this paper in addition to the aforementioned information. When the NCLB was passed, a lot of politicians looked forward to its positive effects to the system of education in America considering all groups like the administrators, teachers, students and parents. In 2006, there have been positive reports about the act and heads have been nodding in approval to the statistics presented. The long term Nation’s Report Card results in 2005 claims that achievements in Math and Reading of elementary students reached the highest level and that achievement gaps were minimal (Ed.gov). The Department of Education gave similar reports on the statistics submitted in favor of the act and these were applauded during President George W. Bush’s 2008 State of the Union Address. He claimed that in 2007, fourth and eighth graders achieved the highest math scores on record, reading scores are on the rise and African-American and Hisp anic students posted all-time highs (Bush).

Methods And Toolbox For Historical Studies Essay

Methods And Toolbox For Historical Studies - Essay Example Non-written sources contain articles like maps, artifacts, genetic and statistical data. (Williams, 56) The social significance of a historical inquiry rests on configuring the future based on past ideas, and events. Further, Historians are found to make the continuous revision on describing the past events in the light of contemporary ideas. (Williams, 114) In the light of the above context, it is found that history  is more popular and accepted when it is more relevant to the society and presented from a neutral point of view. The historical documentation is a process, which takes into account primary and secondary sources. In regards to the treatment given to the Jews at the time of the Second World War, both Primary and Secondary sources are mentioned. In the case of Primary sources, the Wannsee Protocol written by Adolf Eichmann in 1942 states that Jews were utilized for the purpose of labor in a quest for allocating the huge numbers. It further states that the protocol hinted at subjecting the Jews to heavy human labor like the building of roads. It aimed at a reduction in the numbers owing to the natural effect of inhuman labor. Eichmann further states that the Jews who would succumb to the heavy workloads and inhuman treatment will be granted â€Å"suitable treatment†. To this end, the secondary source a book written by Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman, Denying History argues on the second point presented by Eichmann. They argue stating that the Jews were deported to the East for subjecting th em to inhuman labor. They further state that Eichmann’s statement of â€Å"suitable treatment† certainly signifies assassination of the Jews. They argue stating that Jews who would succumb to the inhuman labor and given â€Å"suitable treatment† justly signifies a chance of Jewish survival and revival.